1. ex. a grey hound and corgi, cant breed due to barriers
2. Populations
2.1. fertile offspring
2.2. gene-pool-all alleles in population
2.3. polymorphism-2 or more variants for a character of a population
2.3.1. ex. elder flowered, 2 color variants
2.4. allele frequency-# of copies of an allele/total alleles for that gene
2.5. genotype- set of genes responsible for that trait, frequencies of the alleles
2.6. relative fitness- the survival rate of one genotype compared to all of the others.
2.7. variation- differences between cells due to environmental/genetic differences.
2.8. The 5 Factors of Hardy-Eq
2.8.1. mutations
2.8.1.1. happen at random
2.8.1.1.1. MRSA
2.8.2. geneflow (migration)
2.8.2.1. alleles move btw populations
2.8.2.1.1. immigrants coming in will make alleles less different.
2.8.3. chance (genetic drift)
2.8.3.1. bottle neck
2.8.3.1.1. a sudden change in environment
2.8.3.2. founder effect
2.8.3.2.1. isolation occurs from a large population
2.8.4. non-random mating
2.8.5. natural selection
2.8.5.1. directional
2.8.5.1.1. mutation makes organism better in environment, out competes other alleles----mean fitness >
2.8.5.2. stabillizing
2.8.5.2.1. too many results in problems, too less does too. Middle is preffered
2.8.5.3. diversifying (disruptive)
2.8.5.3.1. both extremes are preferred
2.8.5.4. balancing
2.8.5.4.1. heterozygous gene results in resistance to disease
2.8.5.5. sexual
2.8.5.5.1. a form of natural selection
2.8.5.5.2. desired trait of mate
2.8.5.5.3. intra
2.8.5.5.4. inter
3. Plants
3.1. nonvascular (bryophytes)
3.1.1. no xylem, phloem
3.1.1.1. ex. mosses, liverworts, hornworts
3.1.1.2. cant be far from water bc no xylem
3.2. vascular (tracheophytes)
3.2.1. non-seed
3.2.1.1. ex. ferns
3.2.2. seed
3.2.2.1. naked seeds
3.2.2.1.1. gymnosperms
3.2.2.2. flower seeds
3.2.2.2.1. angiosperms
3.2.2.2.2. all fruit come from flowers, swollen ovarys
3.3. Terrestrial
3.4. uses alt of gen
3.4.1. sporophyte produces spores through meiosis (diploid)
3.4.2. gametophyte produces games through mitosis (haploid)
3.4.3. useful bc it disperses seeds
4. Speciation
4.1. species=kind, appearance
4.2. one population splits into 2, these split again and common ancestor disappears
4.3. Mayr's Biological Species concept based on reproduction/isolation
4.3.1. group of populations who interbreed and produce fertile offspring
4.4. Morphological Species Concept
4.4.1. based on classifying species based on characteristics such as body shape and structures towards asexual and sexual.
4.5. Ecological Species Concept
4.5.1. species based on a niche and its environment
4.6. Phylogenetic Species Concept
4.6.1. based on a common ancestor and its derived traits
4.7. reproduction isolation-barriers to prevent 2 species from making fertile offspring
4.7.1. prezygotic
4.7.1.1. habitat
4.7.1.1.1. ex. snake in lake, snake in desert
4.7.1.2. temporal
4.7.1.2.1. ex. skunks in different season may breed at different TIMES
4.7.1.3. behavioral
4.7.1.3.1. ex. meadowlark (east&west) have different chirps to their mates
4.7.1.4. mechanical
4.7.1.4.1. ex. snails trying to both go clockwise into each other's shell
4.7.1.5. gametic
4.7.1.5.1. specie's egg&sperm meets but unable to fertilize
4.7.2. postzygotic
4.7.2.1. reduced hybrid viability
4.7.2.1.1. ex. frail salanmander
4.7.2.1.2. different species mate
4.7.2.2. hybrid breakdown
4.7.2.2.1. 1st generation makes it but not the 2nd (infertile)
4.7.2.3. reduced hybrid fertility
4.7.2.3.1. ex. donkey
4.8. cladogenesis (species splits into 2, no gene flow)
4.8.1. allopatric
4.8.2. sympatric
4.8.2.1. isolated from behavior
4.8.2.1.1. species are geographically isolated from each other
4.8.2.2. black cap, birds go to britain because it is shorter and people put out bird feeders
4.9. Evo-Devo
4.9.1. studies ancestral relationships
4.9.2. study of hox genes
4.9.2.1. body form plans
5. Prokaryotes
5.1. bacteria
5.1.1. first organism on Earth
5.1.1.1. cyanbacteria
5.1.1.1.1. oxygen producing, chlorophyll a and phycoblins, single-cell, grows in blooms when alot of heat is present. Alot of N and P produce cyanbacteria.
5.1.1.1.2. freshwater, oceans, wetlands
5.1.1.1.3. only prokaryotes to generate o2 from photosynthesis
5.1.1.1.4. gave rise to plastids
5.1.1.2. actinobacteria
5.1.1.2.1. fix N, makes antibiotics
5.1.1.2.2. gram positive
5.1.1.2.3. has mycuim, looks like fungi
5.1.1.2.4. also know asmycobacteruim
5.1.1.2.5. chloroflexi
5.1.1.2.6. terrestrial or aquatic
5.1.1.2.7. decomposes organic matter
5.1.2. classified according to shape and staining
5.1.2.1. sphere-shaped
5.1.2.2. rod-shaped
5.1.2.3. comma shaped
5.1.2.4. spiral-shaped
5.1.3. gram-postive
5.1.3.1. violet, thick peptidoglycan layers
5.1.4. gram-negative
5.1.4.1. pink, thin layer of peptidoglycan
5.2. archaea
5.2.1. histone protiens
5.2.2. RNA polymerases
5.2.3. Ribsomal proteins
5.2.4. most recent ancestor
5.2.5. different from bacteria:
5.2.5.1. archaea and eukarya share a more recent common ancestor
5.2.5.2. archaea has a more complex RNA polymerase
5.2.5.3. membrane bonding different from each other
5.2.5.4. archaea doesnt include peptidogycan
5.3. unicellular
6. Protist
6.1. eukaryotes
6.2. not a clade bc endosymbiosis happened multiple times, termed "polyphyletic"
6.3. not a fungi, plant nor animal
6.4. invented
6.4.1. sexual life cycles
6.4.1.1. protist CAN reproduce ASEXUALLY
6.4.2. multicellulararity
6.4.3. complex organelles
6.4.4. linear chromosomes, mitosis
7. Origins
7.1. Hypotheses for organic molecules (stage 1)
7.1.1. Reducing atmospere
7.1.1.1. atm rich in water vapor, H2, CH4, NH3, O2
7.1.1.2. Stanley Miller used a chamber apparatus to stimulate atm & lightening
7.1.1.2.1. Formed Precursors, amino acids, sugars, and nitrogenous bases
7.1.1.3. organic molecules can come from inorganic molecules
7.1.2. Extraterrestrial
7.1.2.1. meteorites brought carbon to Earth
7.1.2.1.1. carbon, aminos, nucleic bases
7.1.3. Deep Sea Vent
7.1.3.1. molecules formed between extremely hot vent water & cold ocean water
7.2. Organic polymers (stage 2)
7.2.1. nucleic acids, proteins, DNA, and carbohydrates (MACRO MOLECULES ARE FORMED)
7.2.2. nucleic acid polymers&polypeptides on clay surfaces
7.2.3. cant form in aquatic solutions bc hydrolysis competes with polymerization
7.3. Boundaries (Stage 3)
7.3.1. Protobiont- precursors to prokaryotic cells
7.3.1.1. 1) boundary separates ext env from int contents
7.3.1.2. 2)Polymers inside protobiont contains info (RNA)
7.3.1.3. 3) polymers had enzymatic function, proteins have more functions
7.3.1.4. 4)maintain homeostasis
7.3.1.4.1. replication needed
7.3.2. living cells evolved from..?
7.3.2.1. coacervates-droplets from charged polymers
7.3.2.1.1. organisms needs this to have metabolic function
7.3.2.2. liposomes- vesicles around phospholipid bilayer..closest to humans, on smooth ERs
7.3.2.2.1. enclose RNA to replicate
7.3.3. central Dogma
7.3.3.1. RNA (came first)
7.3.3.1.1. 1) stores info
7.3.3.1.2. prone to mutations
7.4. RNA World Hypothesis (Stage 4)
7.5. Chemical Selection (mixture of a chemical, has properties that makes it increase)
7.5.1. DNA takes over RNA info storage
7.5.1.1. DNA has less mutations
7.5.2. Protein takes over metabolism
7.5.2.1. has greater catalytic potential
7.5.2.2. can transport, etc
7.5.3. doesnt rely on reprouction
7.5.4. Bartel experiments that RNA doesnt need its enzymatic functions to make DNA
7.6. you can tell where and when they are located and what organisms evolved from
7.7. Fossils
7.7.1. once living, decomposed&compacted into earths surface
7.7.1.1. time, anatomy, size, number, geo, location
7.7.2. most rocks are sedimentary
7.7.2.1. cant find DNA sequence bc of soft tissues
7.8. History of Life on Earth
7.8.1. Earth 4.55 bya
7.8.2. Hadean Eon (no life)
7.8.3. Archaean Eon (prokaryotes)
7.8.3.1. fossils-3.5 bya
7.8.3.1.1. stromalites-layerd CaCO3
7.8.3.2. organisms anaerobic
7.8.3.3. 1st cells heterotrophic
7.8.3.3.1. cyanbacteria produce O2
7.8.4. Proterozoic (Eukaryotes)
7.8.4.1. euk-1.5 bya
7.8.4.2. went through endosymbiosis
7.8.4.2.1. archae invaginates membrane
7.8.4.2.2. membrane takes in bacteruim
7.8.4.2.3. cyanbacteria event
7.8.4.2.4. first diploblaastic
7.8.4.3. first multicellular
7.8.5. Phanerozoic Eon (after Precambrian, animals appear)
7.8.5.1. Cambrian Explosion (animals and plants) happened
7.8.5.2. animals (first)
7.8.5.2.1. sponge-like/Jelly fish (radial symmetry)
7.8.5.3. Paleozoic Era
7.8.5.3.1. 1st animals/land plants
7.8.5.4. Era
7.8.5.4.1. dinosaurs, birds, flowers
7.8.5.5. Cenozoic Era
7.8.5.5.1. hominids
7.8.6. came from Prebiotic soup
7.8.7. first made cell
7.8.7.1. was a prokayote, then...
7.8.7.1.1. formed into eukaryote
7.8.8. universe 13.7 bya
7.8.9. solar system 4.6 bya
7.8.10. life 3.5 bya
7.9. Env changes that influence macroevo
7.9.1. climate
7.9.2. atm
7.9.3. continental drift
7.9.4. volcanoes
7.9.5. meteros
8. Natural Selection
8.1. the change in heritable characteristics of a population/time
8.1.1. explains wide observations
8.1.1.1. supported by a large body of evidence
8.1.1.1.1. cannot create diverse traits, acts on variation
8.2. Charles Darwin
8.2.1. "The Origin of Species"
8.2.2. challenged views of earth origin
8.2.3. descent with modification=diversity
8.2.4. artificial selection
8.2.4.1. modify traits and breed
8.2.4.1.1. breeders determine what traits to have
8.2.5. traits inherited from parents-offspring
8.2.6. 13 finish species
8.2.7. natural selection happens because of natural variation
8.3. Misconceptions
8.4. homology-similar to each other, from common ancestor
8.4.1. set of bones in forearms
8.4.1.1. structure
8.5. analogy-convergence, arises independently
8.5.1. function
8.6. MRSA
8.6.1. resitant to antibacteria, especially penicillum
8.6.1.1. vanocomycin worked in MRSA, vanomycin was the only one that had a mutation that could survive, until plate 3 when MRSA started resisting that, too.
8.6.2. a bacteria that causes infections on the body
8.6.2.1. resistant to penicillin derivatives
8.6.2.1.1. will become resistant to more antibacterial over evolvement
8.6.3. dev a mutation that outcompetes others due to N.S. and its abilityto resist dying from antibacteria, so its the only to survive s it reporduces and is more resistant to other antbacterias over time
8.7. N.S. doesnt create new traits, but selects.
8.8. vestical structure
8.8.1. structures you get from common ancestor but aren't relevent
8.8.1.1. evidence of evolutionary change
8.9. molecular structure that involves the gene sequences of RNA,DNA and proteins over generations over a period of time
9. Taxonomy & Systematics
9.1. Taxonmy
9.1.1. describing and naming
9.1.1.1. categories based on taxons
9.1.1.1.1. Bacteria
9.1.1.1.2. Archaea
9.1.1.1.3. Eukarya
9.1.1.2. 5 scientific names
9.1.1.2.1. Cannis familiaris
9.1.1.2.2. Felis cactus
9.1.1.2.3. Capra hircus
9.1.1.2.4. Canis lupus
9.1.1.2.5. Homo sapiens
9.1.2. history of taxons
9.1.2.1. Plants or animals
9.1.2.2. 5 kingdom system
9.1.2.2.1. kingdom monero
9.1.2.2.2. Kingdom Protista
9.1.2.2.3. Kingdom Animalia
9.1.2.2.4. Kingdom Fungi
9.1.2.3. 3 Domain System
9.1.2.3.1. Bacteria
9.1.2.3.2. Archae
9.1.2.3.3. Eukarya
9.2. Systematics
9.2.1. bio diversity and evo relationships
9.2.2. phylogenetic trees
9.2.2.1. cladogenesis (divergence)
9.2.2.1.1. monophyletic
9.2.2.1.2. paraphyletic
9.2.2.1.3. polyphyletic
9.2.2.2. anagenesis (rare) (one species into another)
9.2.3. cladistics
9.2.3.1. cladograms
9.2.3.1.1. two character states they are grouped by
9.2.3.1.2. horizontal gene transfer
9.2.4. clade-one
10. Bacteria and Achaea
10.1. Norman Pace
10.1.1. doesn't like the word "prokaryote" bc it is defined as a precursor of eukaryotes and means it doesnt have membrane bound organelles or a nucleus and he says words shouldnt be define as to what they arent.
10.1.1.1. to get rid of the word one might have to make a new word and make it popular, change it in textbooks,etc.
10.2. Bacteria (here 1st)
10.2.1. moderate condition, some extreme
10.2.1.1. actinmycetes
10.2.1.1.1. colonies with branched chains of cells
10.2.1.1.2. decomposed organic matter
10.2.1.1.3. causes strep throat
10.2.1.1.4. used for antibiotics
10.2.1.2. cyanobacteria
10.2.1.2.1. o2 producing bacteria, only one to release o2 from photosynthesis
10.2.1.2.2. chloropyll a and phycoblins-green pigment
10.2.1.2.3. produces blooms that are toxic
10.2.1.2.4. chloroplast evolved from it
10.2.1.3. proteobacteria
10.2.1.3.1. gram-negative
10.2.1.3.2. aerobic/anaerobic
10.2.1.3.3. splits into 5 subgroups
10.2.2. defined by shapes
10.2.2.1. rod-shaped
10.2.2.2. comma shaped
10.2.2.3. spiral shaped
10.2.2.4. sphere shaped
10.2.3. Peptidoglycan
10.2.3.1. thick cell wall on the plasma membrane that contains amino acids and sugars that makes bacteria pos/meg staining.
10.2.3.2. also called murein
10.2.3.3. Gram positive
10.2.3.3.1. pink, thick layer
10.2.3.4. Gram negative
10.2.3.4.1. violet, thin layer
10.3. archaea
10.3.1. closer to eukaryotes bc of histone proteins, RNA polymerases and ribosomal proteins
10.3.2. ether bonds
10.3.3. lives in extreme conditions